Depending on whether trends/patterns (what it is) or values (what it should be) are examined, we distinguish between empirical and normative social research.
Empirical social research (trends/patterns):
Studies what is. It describes and explains the social world as it exists using verifiable evidence.
"Does the death penalty deter crime rates?" (Measured by statistics)
We collect data or use existing data in empirical social research.
Normative social research (values):
Studies what it should be. It evaluates the social world based on values, beliefs, and ethical standards.
"Is it morally right for the state to execute criminals?" (Debated by ethics)
We do not need any kind of data in normative social research.
To be able to use a social concept (variable) in empirical social research, we must have a data that includes those variables:
Primary data (self-collected – surveying and interviewing):
If you interview or survey people for a project examining “How frequency of social media use affects attention span,” you must directly ask questions related to “frequency of social media use” and “attention span.”
Here you go out and ask questions to people.
Secondary data (collected or created by someone else):
If you analyze existing textual data from social media or survey data collected by other researchers for a project examining “How frequency of social media use affects attention span,” that data must actually include information related to “frequency of social media use” and “attention span.”
This is a desk-based job, and you do not ask question to people.
Primary data is self-collected data obtained directly from people:
Data that you collect yourself for a specific purpose.
You gather this through interviews (qualitative) or surveys (quantitative) using questions you prepare.
If you want to study “How frequency of social media use affects attention span,” using primary data, then,
You will ask your respondents multiple questions about their social media habits and their reflections on their own attention span.
People’s responses become your data.
You specifically want to study “How frequency of social media use affects attention span,” therefore, you collect your own data by interviewing or surveying people.
You interviewed (qualitative method) 20 people with the questions you prepared.
Data
Interview 4 (transcription):
You: …So, you mentioned earlier that you scroll on your phone in bed while trying to fall asleep?
Respondent 4: Yeah, I know, it’s pointless. I do it every single night. It’s funny…I don’t remember a single thing I read or watch, but somehow it takes up two hours. Then I just feel so exhausted in the morning.
You: Aside from being tired, have you noticed social media affecting your life in any other way?
Respondent 4: I can’t concentrate on anything. I can’t even sit through a video longer than two minutes anymore…
Interview 5 (transcription):
You: …You said you have no social media accounts…
You surveyed (quantitative method) 300 people with the questions you prepared.
Q3: …What’s your age? (1) 18-24, (2) 25-34, (3) 35+
Q12: …On a typical day, how many hours do you spend browsing social media platforms)? (1) Less than 1 hour, (2) 1 – 2 hours, (3) 3 – 4 hours, (4) 5 or more hours
Q25: …Please indicate how much you agree with the following statement: "I find it difficult to focus on a single task (like reading or watching a movie) for more than 30 minutes." (1) Strongly Disagree, (2) Disagree, (3) Neutral, (4) Agree, (5) Strongly Agree
Data
“How frequency of social media use affects attention span”
You conduct a content analysis (qualitative method) using Reddit. Although you initially proposed to study “the frequency of social media use,” as you read the text, you realized that information wasn’t there. Instead, the data itself guided you to a new potential study: “How quitting social media affects attention span.”
Data
You downloaded an existing survey dataset (quantitative method) collected from 4,394 people. Although the survey included a question about “the frequency of social media use,” it lacked a question about “attention span.” Consequently, you decided to investigate a different potential relationship: “How the frequency of social media use affects political interest.”
Data
“How frequency of social media use affects attention span”
id Q7 Q12
1 1 1
2 1 2
… 2 2
4394 3 4
The feasibility of variables in empirical social research¶
Did you just propose a topic, “How frequency of social media use affects attention span” out of nowhere, simply because you wanted to study it?
No!
You started with an initial broad interest, such as “attention span”
You, then read the literature (what others studied before, what others found, proposed theories, and suggestions for future research)
You learned that the frequency of social media use appears to be a potential cause.
Then, to test what you learned from the literature;
[if primary data] You prepared specific interview or survey questions;
[if secondary data] You searched social/mass media content (like Reddit or YouTube) or databases (like ICPSR: for existing survey data)
If no data was available, you modify our research topic based on the literature and data availability.
The iterative process: Aligning literature and data¶
The “Dialogue” between literature and data:
Research is not a straight line; it is a cycle.
We never finalize the Literature Review or the Analysis Results in isolation.
They must “talk to each other.”
Textbook View: Literature > Hypothesis > Data > Result (Linear).
Real Life: Literature <-> Data (Cyclic/Iterative).
Modifying what we study is a natural part of empirical research:
We keep modifying our variables or data until the literature and the data are aligned
Do not finalize your Literature Review until you have analyzed your data.
Do not finalize your Data Analysis until you have confirmed the literature supports your variables and the proposed causal relationships.
Imagine you are interested in how ethnic identification, contact level with natives, and discrimination affect return migration.
Since the main topic you are studying is “return migration,” this is your dependent variable.
Since you argue that return migration is influenced by three factors: ethnic identification, contact level with natives, and discrimination, these are your three independent variables.
You use four variables in this research question: (1) Return migration, (2) Ethnic identification, (3) Contact level with natives, and (4) Discrimination. Therefore, the data you will use MUST have these variables.
(Dependent variable)
Return migration
(Independent variable 1)
Ethnic identification
(Independent variable 2)
Contact level with natives
(Independent variable 3)
Discrimination
Dependent and independent variables: Variable diagram (1)¶
Dependent variable: Return migration
Independent variable 1: Ethnic identification
Independent variable 2: Contact level with natives
Independent variable 3: Discrimination
Research question: To what extent do ethnic identification, contact level with natives, and discrimination influence return migration?
To answer a research question, we must formulate hypotheses1 and test them using data.
Research Question
Hypothesis 1
Hypothesis 2
Hypothesis 3….
1 Tentative predictions we have about what we are going to discover before we begin the research. Educated guesses by following the directions of the literature.
Dependent and independent variables: Variable diagram (2)¶
Dependent variable: Return migration
Independent variable 1: Ethnic identification
Independent variable 2: Contact level with natives
Independent variable 3: Discrimination
Hypothesis 1: I expect to find that ethnic identification (Independent variable 1) increases return migration (Dependent variable)
Hypothesis 2: I expect to find that contact level with natives (Independent variable 2) decreases return migration (Dependent variable)
Hypothesis 3: I expect to find that discrimination (Independent variable 3) increases return migration (Dependent variable)
Research question: To what extent do ethnic identification (Independent variable 1), contact level with natives (Independent variable 2), and discrimination (Independent variable 3) influence return migration (Dependent variable)?
As there are three independent variables, there are three hypotheses.
So, we develop a hypothesis for the proposed relationship between each independent variable and the dependent variable.
Hypotheses MUST include:
1. An independent variable and the dependent variable, and
2. How the independent variable influences or changes the dependent variable (in a positive or negative direction). It cannot be both “increases” and “decreases” or “depends.” It cannot be both “positively affects” and “negatively affects”. You need to choose one.
Hypothesis 1: I expect to find that ethnic identification (Independent variable 1) increases return migration (Dependent variable)
Hypothesis 2: I expect to find that contact level with natives (Independent variable 2) decreases return migration (Dependent variable)
Hypothesis 3: I expect to find that discrimination (Independent variable 3) increases return migration (Dependent variable)
Variables are the main elements of hypotheses where we propose causal relationships;
A increases B, A decreases B, A positive affects B, or A negatively affects B.
Therefore, phrase your variables so they;
(1) are specific and anyone can understand exactly what you mean,
(2) have high and low values - all variables must be able to increase or decrease, or be positively or negatively affected by other variables.
(3) show causality - variables should make sense in a hypothesis. Independent variables must be able to increase (positively affect) or decrease (negatively affect) the dependent variable so it shows causality.
Hypothesis 1: I expect to find that family involvement positively affects academic performance
Phrasing variables: The three-step test (1) - The “What about it?” test¶
Step 1: The “What about it?” test (Check for specificity):
A variable is not a topic; it is a specific attribute of that topic.
The Test: Look at your variable. Does it force you to ask, “What about it?”
Example: You write “Social media.”
Question: “What about social media? Do you mean the time spent? The platform? The addiction?”
Fix: If you have to explain it, rewrite it.
For example, “Frequency of Social Media Use.”
Phrasing variables: The three-step test (2) - The “Higher or lower?” test¶
Step 2: The “Higher or lower?” test (Check for measurement):
A variable must be able to vary (increase, decrease, positively affect(ed), negatively affect(ed)).
The Test: Can you meaningfully ask, “Is this variable higher or lower for this person/group?”
Example: You write “Social media.”
Question: “Is social media higher for youth?”
Fix: If it doesn’t make sense, rewrite it.
For example, “Level of social media addiction.”
Phrasing variables: The Three-Step Test (3) - The “Is there a causality?” test¶
Step 3: The “Is there a causality?” test (Hypothesis fit):
Variables must be phrased so it can logically “increase,” “decrease,” “positively affect(ed),” or “negatively affected”
(e.g., “I expect to find that X increases Y”).
The Test: Put your variables into the hypothesis template and read, “Is there a meaningful causality here?”
Hypothesis template: “I expect to find that independentvariable1 (choose one, delete the rest: increases OR decreases OR positively affects OR negatively affects) dependentvariable”
Example: You write “I expect to find that social media decreases attention span.”
Question: “Is there a meaningful causality here?”
Fix: If it doesn’t make sense, rewrite it.
For example, “I expect to find that using short video-based social media platforms decreases attention span.”
Bad variable Why? Good variable
1. “Political attitudes”
The nature/direction of the attitude is not specified.
Doesn’t increase (positively affect(ed)) or decrease (negatively affect(ed)).
“Progressive political attitudes” OR “Conservative political attitudes”
”Culture” OR “Globalization”
Too vague. What about it? Culture (of globalization) affects everything and is being affected by everything. Imagine you ask questions to respondents, or you read a social media post and you’ll say, “this is culture (or globalization).”
“Collectivistic culture” OR “individualistic culture” OR “Support for free trade”
“Race” OR “Gender” OR “Marital status”OR “Employment status”
These are categories. You cannot say “Race (or Gender) increases X.” You must specify if you mean the identification or mean something else. Perhaps, you mean “presence of a condition,” such as “being employed.” While the following doesn’t make sense: “Employment status increases financial security,” this makes sense: “Being employed increases financial security.”
"Strength of racial identification" OR “Racism” OR “Sexism” OR “Gender wage gap” OR “Being woman” OR “Being Black” OR “Being married” OR “Being employed”
"Resources" OR “Life conditions”
Too broad. Are we talking about money, friends, time, or information? It is impossible to measure “Resources” or “Life conditions” in general. Do everyone understand the same thing when we say “Resources” or “Life conditions”?
“Level of household income” (Financial) OR “Size of social support network” (Social) OR “Quality of housing conditions” OR “Perception of neighborhood safety”
Bad variable Why? Good variable
5. "Social relationships"
No specific attribute. Everyone has relationships. The variable must measure a specific attribute of those relationships (how good they are or how often they happen).
“Quality of social relationships” OR “The number of friends” OR “Frequency of social interaction”
“Quality of social relationships and the number of friends”
Double-barreled. There are two separate variables here. You need to focus on only one.
“Quality of social relationships” OR “The number of friends”
“Education”
It is an institution, not a variable. Do you mean the time spent there, the degree earned, or the quality of the school?
“Years of formal schooling” OR “Level of educational attainment”
“Climate change”
This is a global issue, not a variable. You usually measure people’s reactions to it or their knowledge about it.
“Concern about climate change” OR “Support for environmental regulations”
“Crime”
Ambiguous. Does this refer to committing a crime, fearing crime, or being a victim? "Crime" is just a topic.
“Fear of crime” OR “Frequency of criminal behavior” OR “Risk of victimization”